History  of
  Communications-Electronics  in  
the  United  States  Navy





with  an  introduction  by

FLEET  ADMIRAL  CHESTER  W.  NIMITZ,  USN





Prepared  by

CAPTAIN  L.  S.  HOWETH,  USN  (Retired)

under  the  auspices  of

BUREAU  OF  SHIPS  AND  OFFICE  OF  NAVAL  HISTORY


WASHINGTON: 1963
This is an HTML version of the original 1963 U.S. government publication, History of Communications-Electronics in the United States Navy, by Captain Linwood S. Howeth, USN (Retired).

This HTML version incorporates all of the original contents (except for some minor elements, such as page number references), keeping as much as possible the layout of the original 657 page document. (United States, Government Printing Office, Washington: 1963. Library of Congress Catalogue Number: 64-62870)

 
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MEN  WHO  IGNORE  THE  PAST  ARE  DOOMED  TO  RELIVE  IT . . .

SANTAYANA

Dedication
Preface
Introduction


pages xvii-xxix:

Contents

PART  I.  THE  DECADE  OF  DEVELOPMENT
Chapter

I.  HISTORIC  MODES  OF  NAVAL  COMMUNICATIONS:

  1. Ancient and Medieval Types
  2. Signaling During the American Revolution
  3. Early Navy Signaling
  4. Signaling During the Civil War
  5. A Decade of Stagnation
  6. Development of Electrical Communications in the Navy
  7. Winged Messengers
  8. Naval Communications During the War with Spain


II.  BIRTH  OF  SCIENCE  OF  RADIO  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  USABLE  COMPONENTS:

  1. Basic Requirements
  2. Birth of the Science of Radio
  3. Unsuccessful Endeavors to Communicate Without Wires
  4. Hertz's Contributions to the Science of Radio
  5. Early U.S. Navy Interest in the Development of Communications Without Wire
  6. Theories and Developments Following Hertz's Disclosures
  7. Improvement of Marconi Equipment
  8. First Radio News Reporting
  9. First Uses of Radio as an Aid to Safety of Life at Sea
10. The First Marconi Company Contract
11. Radio Tests in The Royal Navy


III.  NEGOTIATIONS  WITH  THE  BRITISH  MARCONI  COMPANY:

  1. Early U.S. Interest in Radio
  2. The U.S. Navy Indicates Interest in Marconi Equipment
  3. The Navy Observes the Radio Reporting of the American Cup Races
  4. Naval Tests of Marconi Equipment
  5. Report of the Navy's Radio Telegraph Board
  6. Marconi's Proffer Unacceptable to the Navy


IV.  THE  UNHURRIED  SEARCH  FOR  RADIO  EQUIPMENT:

  1. Watchful Waiting
  2. Organization of Early United States Radio Companies
  3. The International Yacht Races Create a Radio Fiasco
  4. The Navy's Position, 1901
  5. Reappraisal and Study of the Situation
  6. Purchase of European Equipment for Tests
  7. Basic Training of Naval Personnel in Maintenance and Operation of European Equipment
  8. Comments and Recommendations Concerning European Equipments
  9. Further Controversy with Marconi Interests
10. Tests of American Manufactured Equipments
11. Summary


V.  EARLY  PLANNING  AND  DEVELOPMENT  PROBLEMS:

  1. Preparation
  2. The Comparative Tests
  3. Purchase of Additional Equipments
  4. Repercussions from American Manufacturers Resultant of Slaby-Arco Purchases


VI.  EARLY  NAVAL  RADIO  INSTALLATIONS  AND  PROBLEMS:

  1. Organization
  2. Initial Establishment of U. S. Naval Radio Stations
  3. Initial Fleet Installations
  4. The Navy's First Strategic Use
  5. The Opposition of Senior Officers


VII.  THE  ORIGINS  OF  REGULATION:

  1. Commercial Rivalry
  2. Interference Between Stations
  3. Objections to Monopoly
  4. The First International Radio Telegraphic Conference, Berlin, 1903
  5. Conflict of Interests
  6. The Roosevelt Board
  7. Marconi Interests Voice Objections
  8. The Beginning of the Struggle of Vested Radio Interest to Prevent Legislation to Control their Actions


VIII.  EARLY  EXPANSION  OF  NAVAL  RADIO  COMMUNICATIONS:

  1. Revitalization of the Wireless Telegraph Board
  2. Further Disagreement with American Marconi
  3. Test of Anders Bull Equipment
  4. The Temporary Pacification of Fessenden and Tests of His Apparatus
  5. Failure of Some American Companies to Submit Apparatus for Tests
  6. Ineffectiveness of the Wireless Telegraph Board
  7. Problems Connected with the Purchase of Equipment for the Caribbean Radio Circuits
  8. Additional Fessenden Complaints
  9. Fessenden Continues His Complaints Against the Navy
10. Tests and Purchases of Equipment Developed by John Stone Stone
11. Purchase of Massie Equipment
12. Procurement of Shoemaker Equipment
13. Other Purchases During this Period
14. Radio Equipment in Use in the U. S. Navy in 1906


IX.  EARLY  USAGE  OF  NAVAL  RADIO:

  1. The Shore Radio System
  2. Origins of Special Broadcasts of the Naval Radio Service
  3. Training in the Strategic Use of Radio
  4. Aid Rendered by Naval Radio Following the San Francisco Earthquake


X.  RENEWED  EFFORTS  TO  ESTABLISH  CONTROL:

  1. Increase in Radio Interference
  2. Reversal of the Bureau of Equipment Policy Pertaining to Federal Regulation
  3. The Second International Radio Telegraphic Conference, Berlin, 1906
  4. The Struggle for Ratification of the Berlin Convention
  5. The Shelving of the Treaty
  6. The Struggle for Effective Control Continues


XI.  THE  EARLY  RADIO  INDUSTRY  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY:

  1. The Condition of the Radio Industry
  2. The United Wireless Company
  3. The De Forest Companies
  4. The National Electric Signaling Company and the Synchronous Rotary Spark Gap Transmitter
  5. The Federal Telegraph Company of California and the Poulsen Arc Transmitter
  6. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America
  7. The Atlantic Communication Company
  8. The Wireless Specialty Apparatus Company
  9. Small Business
10. The Fight for Commercial Control of the American Radio Industry


XII.  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  FEDERAL  REGULATION:

  1. The Political Situation in 1908
  2. Early Attempts at Legislation Toward Sea Safety
  3. First Radio Legislation for Safety at Sea and Consideration of Regulation
  4. The Effect of a Changing Political Situation
  5. Third International Radio Telegraphic Conference Invitation Withdrawal Forces Senate to Reconsider Berlin Convention
  6. Ratification of Berlin Convention and Renewal of Invitation to Attend the London Conference
  7. Revision of the Radio Ship Act of 1910
  8. The Government's Continued Effort for Enactment of Regulatory Legislation
  9. The Achievement of Federal Radio Regulation
10. The Third International Radio Telegraphic Conference


XIII.  EARLY  GROWTH  OF  NAVAL  COMMUNICATIONS:

  1. The United States Naval Radio Situation in 1908
  2. Bureau of Equipment Radio Planning
  3. The Radio Telephone Failure
  4. Establishment and Early Accomplishments of the Naval Radio Research Laboratory
  5. Utilization of Newly Developed Apparatus
  6. Portable Sets
  7. Initial Tests of the Fessenden 100 KW Synchronous Rotary Spark Transmitter
  8. The Marconi Interests Again Invade
  9. Radio (Arlington), Virginia, Selected as Site of High Powered Station
10. Navy Department Reorganization and the Naval Radio System
11. The Naval Radio System in Alaska
12. Endeavor to Force the Fleet to Use Radio for Tactical Purposes
13. First U. S. Naval Radio Frequency Plan
14. The Radio (Arlington), Virginia, Station
15. Final Acceptance Tests of Fessenden Transmitter and Comparative Tests of Federal Arc Transmitter
16. Development of Transmitter Frequency Changer
17. Approval of Navy High-Powered Radio System
18. Approbation


XIV.  EARLY  NAVY  EFFORT  TO  DEVELOP  AIRCRAFT  RADIO:

  1. Early Naval Interest in Aircraft
  2. The Navy Procures its First Aircraft
  3. The Navy Develops the First Aircraft Radio


XV.  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  RADIO  PRIOR  TO  WORLD  WAR  I:

  1. The Unsatisfactory Fleet Communication Situation
  2. Failure of Prescribed Tactical Use of Radio
  3. Assignment of Atlantic Fleet Radio Officer
  4. Establishment of Radio Circuit Discipline
  5. Development of the Fleet Radio Organization
  6. Improvement of Operators' Capabilities
  7. Radio Accepted as a Method of Tactical Signaling
  8. Establishment of the Office of Superintendent, Naval Radio Service
  9. Organization of Office of Superintendent, Naval Radio Service
10. Radio Organization in the Navy
11. Vera Cruz--Proving Ground of Naval Communications
12. Communications Security During the Mexican Incident
13. World War I Precipitates the End of an Era
14. Future Requirements of Naval Radio


PART  II.  THE  GOLDEN  AGE



XVI.  UNITED  STATES  NAVY'S  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  RADIO  AND  COMMUNICATION  INDUSTRIES:

  1. Prolog
  2. Radio Situation at Beginning of World War I
  3. The United States Navy's Role During World War I
  4. The Navy's Part in Development of Electronic Equipment
  5. United States Naval Radio Operations During World War I
  6. The Navy's Role in Protecting National Interests
  7. Naval Radio Research
  8. The Radio Direction Finder
  9. Development of Radio Controlled Objects
10. Underwater Sound Detection Research and Development
11. The Navy's Role in the Expanded Radio World
12. Epilog


XVII.  RADIO  EQUIPMENT  IMPROVEMENT  DURING  NEUTRALITY  PERIOD:

  1. Improvement Programs
  2. Establishment of a Naval Radio Design Group
  3. Obstacles to Navy Design of Radio Equipment
  4. Circuit Developments which Affected Design of Navy Receivers
  5. Radio Telephony Developments and Their Effect on Navy Designed Radio Receivers
  6. First Navy Designed and Manufactured Receivers
  7. Amplifier as Aid to Reception
  8. Improvement of Vacuum Tube
  9. Improvement of Condensers
10. Navy Radio Type Number System
11. Status of Navy Design at Time We Entered the War
12. Increased Equipment Requirements
13. Standardization of Shipboard Installations
14. Comparison With Other Navies


XVIII.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  HIGH-POWERED  CHAIN:

  1. Authorization
  2. Planning the Chain
  3. Construction of the Canal Zone High-Powered Station
  4. Changes in Planning for Other Stations of the High-Powered Chain
  5. Completion of the High-Powered Stations
  6. Trans-Atlantic High-Powered Stations


XIX.  OPERATIONS  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  RADIO  SERVICE  DURING  NEUTRALITY  PERIOD:

  1. Services Rendered by Naval Radio Service
  2. Neutrality Censorship
  3. Operation of the Tuckerton and Sayville Stations
  4. Mobilization of Communication Resources
  5. Personnel
  6. Reorganization of Naval Communications
  7. The End of Neutrality


XX.  WARTIME  EXPANSION  OF  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  COMMUNICATION  SYSTEM:

  1. Expansion by Absorption of Commercial Facilities
  2. Status of Transatlantic Communications
  3. Plans for Augmenting Transatlantic Radio Communications Facilities
  4. Improvement of Existing Transmitting Facilities in the United States
  5. The Annapolis Transmitter Station
  6. The Lafayette Transmitter Station
  7. Planning the Additional U.S. High-Power Station
  8. Effect of the War on Radio Transmission Facilities
  9. Experimentation With Directive and Balanced Receiving Antenna Systems
10. Augmentation of Receiving Facilities
11. Purchase of Commercial Shore Stations


XXI.  IMPROVEMENT  OF  RADIO  EQUIPMENT  DURING  WORLD  WAR  I:

  1. Transmitters
  2. Voice Modulated Transceivers
  3. Receiving Equipment


XXII.  THE  RADIO  DIRECTION  FINDER:

  1. Early Investigations
  2. Early U.S. Navy Interest
  3. Later Navy Interest
  4. Development of a Satisfactory Method
  5. Purchase of Rights under Kolster Patent
  6. Early Ship Installations
  7. Usage Problems With Early Ship Installations
  8. Destroyer Direction Finders
  9. The Radio Direction Finder in the War Zone
10. Improvement of Radio Direction Finder Equipment
11. Establishment of Navy Shore Direction Finder System


XXIII.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AIRCRAFT  RADIO  EQUIPMENT:

  1. Prolog
  2. Prewar Equipment
  3. Establishment of Naval Aircraft Radio Laboratory
  4. Developments of Naval Aircraft Radio Laboratory
  5. Wartime Requirements
  6. Wartime Development of Aircraft Radio Equipments
  7. Air Station Radio Equipment Development
  8. Radio and the Transatlantic Flight
  9. Epilog


XXIV.  PROCUREMENT  AND  INSTALLATION  OF  RADIO  EQUIPMENT  DURING  WAR  I:

  1. Standardization
  2. Procurement of Materiel
  3. Procurement and Maintenance of the Emergency Fleet Radio Installations
  4. Fitting and Maintenance of Naval Vessels
  5. Problems Which Arose from Combined Naval Operations


XXV.  OPERATION  OF  THE  WORLD'S  LARGEST  RADIO  SYSTEM:

  1. Mobilization
  2. Training of Wartime Personnel
  3. Operation of the Shore Radio System
  4. Fleet Communications
  5. Communications Security
  6. Ship's Movement Information
  7. Landlines
  8. Coast Guard Communications
  9. Communications for Other Government Departments
10. Armistice Negotiations
11. Post Armistice Communications
12. Cable Censorship


XXVI.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  UNDERWATER  SOUND  AND  DETECTION  EQUIPMENT:

  1. Preface
  2. Historical Background
  3. Early Work of the Submarine Signal Company
  4. Underwater Communications
  5. Development of the Fessenden Oscillator
  6. Early Navy Tests of Underwater Sound for Ranging
  7. Early Navy Tests of Underwater Sound Communications
  8. World War I Development of Sound Detection Systems
  9. Activities of the Special Board
10. Accomplishments of the Groups
11. Training in the Use and Maintenance of Underwater Detection Equipment
12. Operational Use of Underwater Detection Equipment
13. Postwar Development
14. The Navy Develops First Practicable Sonic Depth Finder
15. Development of Underwater Detection and Ranging Following World War I


XXVII.  ATTEMPTS  TO  ESTABLISH  A  U.S.  GOVERNMENT  RADIO  MONOPOLY:

  1. British Endeavors Toward Establishment of World Dominance in Radio Communications
  2. Attempt to Revise the Act to Regulate Radio Communications
  3. From Regulation to Attempted Government Monopoly
  4. Failure to Establish the Monopoly
  5. Enabling Legislation


XXVIII.  POSTWAR  RESEARCH  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  RADIO  COMMUNICATION  EQUIPMENT:

  1. Postwar Problems
  2. Postwar Research and Development
  3. Discovery of the Phenomenon of Radar
  4. The Navy Broadcast Station
  5. Early Postwar Vacuum Tube Transmitter Developments
  6. Postwar Vacuum Tube Improvements
  7. Navy Alternating Current Vacuum Tube Transmitter Developments
  8. Postwar Receiving Equipment Development
  9. Establishment of the Naval Research Laboratory
10. Research and Development of High Frequency Equipment
11. Continued Research in the Use of Higher Frequencies
12. Fleet Tests of High Frequency Radio
13. Improvements to the Arc Transmitter
14. The U.S.S. Ohio--Radio Experimental Ship
15. Use of Remote Radio Control of Surface Vessels
16. Underwater Pilot Cable


XXIX.  REMOTE  RADIO  CONTROL:

  1. Early Endeavors to Control Objects by Radio
  2. Developments by John Hays Hammond, Jr.
  3. Test of Hammond Remote Control System
  4. Legislation for the Purchase of the Hammond System
  5. Demonstrations of the Hammond System
  6. Action of the Joint Torpedo Board
  7. Amended Legislation for Purchase of Hammond System
  8. The Coast Artillery Weapon Project Abandoned
  9. Research in Radio Control of the Standard Navy Torpedo
10. Early Navy Flying Bomb Research, Development, and Experimentation
11. Navy Research, Development, and Experimentation With Radio Controlled Aircraft


XXX.  THE  NAVY  AND  THE  RADIO  CORPORATION  OF  AMERICA:

  1. Marconi Interests Endeavor to Strengthen British Domination
  2. The Navy Opposes the Alternator Sale
  3. President Wilson's Interest in American Domination of Radio
  4. The Thwarting of the Marconi Plans
  5. Conception of an American Controlled Radio Company
  6. Birth of the Radio Corp. of America
  7. Growth of the Radio Corp. of America
  8. The Westinghouse Co. Enters the International Radio Communications Field
  9. Westinghouse Strengthens its Patent Position
10. Westinghouse Co. and General Electric Co. Become Corporate Partners in the Radio Corporation
11. Expansion of the Radio Corporation During 1921
12. The Navy Objects to the Radio Corporation's Efforts to Establish a Monopoly of Ship-Shore Communications
13. The Navy Supports the Federal Telegraph Co. in its Endeavors to Establish Transpacific Radio Circuits
14. Epilog


XXXI.  THE  NAVY  AND  THE  PATENT  SITUATION:

  1. Early Patent Disputes
  2. Early U.S. Navy Patent Policy
  3. Navy Plans to Design and Manufacture Radio Equipment for Its Own Use
  4. Wartime Patent Problems
  5. Postwar Determination of Radio Patent Infringements by the Government
  6. Postwar Patent Problems
  7. The Radio Corporation's Use of Patents to Enforce Monopoly


XXXII.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FLEET  TACTICAL  COMMUNICATIONS:

  1. Fleet Communications Situation at the End of World War I
  2. The Improvement Period
  3. Preparations for Forming a Single Fleet
  4. Radio Communications Situation in the U.S. Fleet
  5. Effects of Radio Broadcasting
  6. Improvement of Ship Installations
  7. Continued Unsatisfactory Tactical Radio Performance
  8. Trend Towards the Use of Higher Frequencies
  9. Radio Modernization Plan


XXXIII.  POSTWAR  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NAVY  SHORE  RADIO  SYSTEM:

  1. Prolog
  2. The Postwar Shore Radio System
  3. Assistance Provided the Embryonic National Commercial Radio Companies
  4. Services Rendered Mariners
  5. Services Rendered Other Government Departments
  6. Postwar Organization of the Shore System
  7. Development of the Use of Higher Frequencies


PART  III.  THE  ELECTRONIC  AGE



XXXIV.  ROLES  AND  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NAVY  DURING  THE  ELECTRONIC  AGE:

  1. Prolog
  2. The Beginning of the Electronic Age
  3. The Broadcast Era
  4. Radio During the Depression Years
  5. World War II Development
  6. Epilog


XXXV.  POST  WORLD  WAR  I  RADIO  MODERNIZATION:

  1. Prolog
  2. Fleet Communications Conditions Following World War I
  3. Interim Measures to Improve Fleet Communications
  4. Development of Satisfactory Low-Powered Low-Frequency Vacuum Tube Transmitters
  5. Improvement of Broadcasts to the Fleets
  6. Initial Endeavors in Developing the Radio Modernization Plan
  7. Tentative Modernization Plans
  8. Effect of High Frequency Communications on the Modernization Plan
  9. Problems of Revision of the Radio Modernization Plan
10. 1926 Modernization Plan
11. Implementation of the 1926 Modernization Program
12. Problems of Implementation and Changes in Plan
13. Revision of the 1926 Modernization Plan


XXXVI.  NAVY  ADMINISTRATION  OF  ELECTRONICS:

  1. Prolog
  2. Organization and Administration of Fleet Communications
  3. Naval Communications Policy and Mission
  4. Communications and Electronics Organizations, 1925-39
  5. Electronic Organization of the Bureau of Ships During World War II
  6. Organization of Bureau of Aeronautics Electronics
  7. Organization of Bureau of Ordnance Electronics
  8. Epilog


XXXVII.  PROCUREMENT  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ELECTRONIC  MATERIAL:

  1. General Contract Procedures
  2. Bureau of Ships Electronic Equipment Procurement
  3. Bureau of Ordnance Electronic Equipment Procurement
  4. Expediting the Production of Electronic Equipment
  5. Bureau of Ships Distribution of Electronic Equipment
  6. Bureau of Aeronautics Distribution of Electronic Equipment
  7. Bureau of Ordnance Distribution of Electronic Equipment


XXXVIII.  RADAR:

  1. Prolog
  2. Radar Principles
  3. Early Knowledge of Radio Wave Echoes
  4. Military Interest in Radio Detection
  5. Radar Component Development Necessary for Utilization of Higher Frequencies
  6. Navy Research and Development of Pulse Radar Systems
  7. Navy Service Tests of Shipborne Radar
  8. Initial Navy Procurement of Commercially Engineered Radars
  9. Increased Radar Development by the Navy
10. Prewar Research and Development of Radar by the Army Signal Corps
11. Prewar Development of Fire Control Radar
12. Wartime Development of Radar Under Direction of Office of Scientific Research and Development


XXXIX.  SONAR:

  1. Prolog
  2. The Development of Sonar
  3. Oceanography and Underwater Sound
  4. Resumption of British-American Exchange of Underwater Sound Research
  5. Increased Scientific Effort in Development and Use of Underwater Sound Equipment
  6. Sonar Operations in the Atlantic
  7. Sonar Operations in the Pacific


XL.  RADIO  CONTROLLED  AIRCRAFT:

  1. Revived Naval Interest
  2. Reactivation of the Radio Controlled Aircraft Project
  3. Navy Development of the Drone
  4. Use of Drones as Fleet Antiaircraft Targets
  5. Navy Development of Telemetering for Aircraft
  6. Navy Development of Guided Missiles Prior to World War II
  7. The Aerial Ram Project
  8. World War II Development of Guided Missiles


XLI.  THE  PROXIMITY  FUZE:

  1. The Naval Fire Control Problem
  2. Early Attempts to Develop a Proximity Fuze
  3. The Development of the Proximity Fuze
  4. Service Test of the VT Fuze
  5. Early Production Under Fluid Specifications
  6. Initial Combat Use
  7. Security Restrictions on Usage
  8. Full Scale Production
  9. Combat Usage During 1943
10. Removal of Security Restrictions and Combat Usage During 1944
11. Epilog


XLII.  RADIO  CONFERENCES  DURING  THE  PERIOD  BETWEEN  WORLD  WARS:

  1. Preface
  2. Allied Radio Conference
  3. National Radio Conferences
  4. The Federal Radio Commission
  5. The Fourth International Radio Conference
  6. The Fifth International Radio Conference
  7. The Sixth International Radio Conference

Appendixes


A.  Chronological Index of Events Leading to or Affecting the Development of Communications and Electronics in the U.S. Navy
B.  Final Protocol, First International Radio Telegraphic Conferences, Berlin, 1903
C.  The Conclusions, Recommendations, and Approval Interdepartmental Board on Wireless Telegraphy (Roosevelt Board), 24 June 1904
D.  Proposed Legislation for National Control of Radio, 1905
E.  Special Notice to Mariners (U.S. Naval Wireless Telegraph Service)
F.  Convention Adopted by Second International Radio Telegraphic Conference, Berlin, Germany, 1906
G.  Public Law No. 264-62d Congress, An Act to Regulate Radio Communication
H.  The U.S. Navy Standard Drawing Number System
I.  The U.S. Navy Type Number System
J.  Radio Patents Owned by or Licensed to the United States Government, 1923
K.  The U.S. Naval Communications Frequency Plan, 1926
L.  U.S. Naval Radio Stations, 1921-25
M.  U.S. Naval Radio Equipment
N.  Extracts from the Fourth International Radio-Telegraphic Conference
      Bibliography
      Index